I.  Components of the work

A. Dramatic conflict (plot). Nearly every work of lit. involves a tension or conflict that needs to be resolved. An equilibrium is broken at the beginning and reestablished by the end.  R.S. Crane says there are three kinds of plot:

    a. plot of action: the physical situation of the protagonist changes (e.g., s/he goes from rags to riches or vice versa, gets killed, gets married, etc.).
    b. plot of character: the moral character of the protagonist changes.
    c. plot of thought: the beliefs and feelings of the protagonist change.

B. Situation: The combination of circumstances out of which the action emerges.  What is the situation of the work and how is it meaningful?

C. Theme: A general idea which suggests the significance of the action.  It can often be stated in terms of an argument, as in
    a. Pride is deadly.
    b. Experience is a better teacher than school or books.
    c. Equality and freedom are illusions.
    d. Once you discover your youthful illusions were foolish, you still have to adopt others to survive.

D. Characters: The main character’s dilemma is often defined by lesser characters (foils) who represent different facets of the problem, or different aspects of the protagonist’s personality, and offer various alternatives.

E. Structure: A typical dramatic and fictional structure goes like this: set the stage, complicate the action, have a climactic action, a falling action, then a resolution or conclusion. Notice any deviations from this pattern.

F. Analogy: Something that stands for something else.  Three forms of analogy are

    a. Simile: an imagined comparison between two things that is explicitly stated using “like” or “as” (e.g., my love is like a rose).
    b. Metaphor: a non-explicit comparison between two things (e.g., the ship plows the sea).
    c. Symbol: half of a metaphor, like a formula you must figure out from the context (e.g., the rose = X).

G. Point of View: Who is telling the story?  Is the narrator distant from the action and objective, seeing all sides (3rd person limited or omniscient), or is s/he a participant and perhaps biased (1st person)?  Is the narrator reliable or unreliable (e.g., just imagining things, or even lying)?

H.  Setting:  where does the action take place?  Is it happening now, or in the past or future?  Day or night?  Country or city?  America or Europe?

II. Inquiry techniques that help you figure out what’s going on

A. Assume that the work is unified: every character, scene, object, conversation, place, and word contributes to the meaning of the work.  Think of the work as a machine, and figure out how each part works and what it does.

B. Look for repetition, similarity, analogy, etc., between objects, scenes, words, etc.

C. Modulation: watch for similar aspects of a work that are changed from one place to another.  Look for a parallel with a difference.

D. Some parts of a work carry more weight than others.  Think carefully about

    a. the meaning of the title
    b. the significance of the opening scene, images, lines, or whatever comes first.
    c. how the work ends
    d. how characters are introduced and defined
    e. where the narrator or a character seems to be thinking out loud (dramatic monologue), commenting on the action or mulling over some problem.
    f. anything that seems strange, that doesn’t seem to fit in.
    e. watch for contrasts: loneliness vs. company; isolation vs. society; independence vs. dependence; love vs. hate; the known vs. the unknown.

III. How to Analyze Style

Now look closely at the words and sentences, and the way they are combined into what’s called “style.”

    A. Diction: Are the words concrete or abstract; simple or complex and technical; slangy, very formal, or everyday; archaic or modern; abusive or polite; sacred or profane; foreign or American; vivid and “poetic,” or bland?

    B. Syntax: Are the sentences long or short; choppy and frantic, or long and smooth; simple or complicated; easy to read or seemingly thrown together in a hurry?  Do they read quickly or slowly, or are they a mixture of the two for variety?

    C.  Tone: Is the tone casual and conversational, humorous, sarcastic, snobbish, angry, sad, affected, enthusiastic, chatty, outraged, blunt, abusive, serious, insane, patronizing, obnoxious, refined, urban or rural?
 
 

· Be specific!  Your first duty is to show you’ve read the works and remember them.  Quote from the works whenever possible, and use title, author, and character names.

· As you are reading a work, compare and contrast it with other works we have read.
 
 

· Memorize the titles of the works as well as the names of the authors and major characters.
· Learn the genres of the works, i.e., poem, short story, essay, novel, play, etc.
· Annotate (make notes by) the works in your book, underlining significant lines and passages, especially first and last lines and  those we mention in class discussions.
· If I write a term on the blackboard, there’s a good chance it will show up on the exam.  If you miss the definition of a term, you have three options:
    1. Ask me to clarify it; e-mail me if necessary.
    2. Look it up in the dictionary.  I will accept any definition that applies to literature.
    3. Ask a classmate whose notes may be more complete than yours.
    · Read all introductory material and author biographies to help you remember the authors and their works; putting them in a context helps you to remember them.
    · Compare your notes with those of your classmates.
    · Reread the works before the exam. Review your notes.
    · Flash cards are a good way to remember and study.

1. It is best to use the present tense (generally) in writing about literature.  (Jude Fawley is humble, Hardy implies, etc.)

2. Keep yourself out of the essay (usually).  Ordinarily, it is not necessary to say "I think" or "I believe."

3. Novel titles are underlined, while short story and poem titles are placed in quotation marks.  Commas and periods go inside close-quotation marks.  Skip one space after commas, two spaces after periods.  Dashes--are two unspaced hyphens.

4.  Page numbers in parentheses are necessary for quotations taken from the piece of literature with which you are working.

5.  Longer quotations (say five lines or more) are set off by single-spacing and indenting four spaces on both sides of the passage.  When you present a quotation in this manner, do not use quotation marks.

6.  Quotations are an excellent way to support your argument, but don't just toss them into your essay.  Your reader should always be able to tell who the speaker of the quotation is and what the context of the quotation is.  A brief introductory phrase or clause will usually suffice.  For example, you might introduce a quotation from Women in Love in this way: "When Ursula tells Birkin that it is impossible for men to have the kind of relationship he describes, Birkin replies, `I don't believe that.'"

7. Assume that I've read the novel and don't waste time on the obvious.  For example, one of your sentences might read, "When Sue jilts Phillotson, an older man and Jude's former friend and teacher, his pride takes a severe blow."  You can eliminate everything that is underlined.

8. In writing about literature, your primary purpose or goal is to convince the reader that your idea (or thesis) about the piece of literature is a valid one.  First of all, you must have an idea (or thesis), whether it be about theme, character, setting, conflict, point-of-view, irony, symbol, etc.
     Secondly, your entire essay must deal directly and emphatically with that idea.  The most common deficiency in writing about literature is the loss of focus on the central idea; instead of using the materials in the piece of literature to show that the idea is reasonable and valid, the unthinking writer will often lapse into simply retelling the narrative, as if the idea were secondary to or self-evident from the plot line.  You must show that the materials from the story are relevant to your idea (thesis).  This point cannot be over-emphasized.  If you do not make the connection between your idea (thesis) and the materials in the piece of literature, you will find in your margin a very large and disrespectful "So What?" In order for your idea (thesis) to be convincing, you need to support important generalizations and observations with specific information and quotations from the piece of literature with which you are dealing.
     In your introductory paragraph you should tell your central idea (thesis), and suggest the importance of your idea (thesis) to the reader's general understanding of the literature.  In the body of your essay demonstrate your thesis, and then provide a brief conclusion in which you reiterate your thesis.  The largest question your reader will
ask is this:  "Has the writer convinced me that his point is a valid one?"

9.  Double-space your essays, with 1-inch margins all around to give me room for nasty red-ink comments.

10. Don't include a cover page, but put your name on the first page, and staple your exam in the upper left-hand corner.
 

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